Health & Wellness

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Sexual arousal triggers several physical responses in the body. Arousal increases blood flow in the genitals. As a result, the blood vessels enlarge, which pushes fluid to the surface of the vaginal walls.

Arousal fluid is clear and watery with a slippery texture. This fluid helps lubricate the vagina during sex.

Other signs of female arousal include:

• increased heart rate and breathing
• flushing of the face, neck, and chest
• swelling of the breasts
• erect nipples

Cervical fluid is a gel-like liquid that contains proteins, carbohydrates, and amino acids. The texture and amount of cervical fluid both change throughout a female's menstrual cycle.

For example, after menstruation, cervical fluid has a thick, mucus-like texture. It can be cloudy, white, or yellow.

Estrogen levels increase closer to ovulation. This causes the cervical fluid to become clear and slippery, similar to that of raw egg whites.

Cervical fluid discharge increases during the days leading up to ovulation and decreases after ovulation. Females may have no discharge for a few days after their period.

Hormonal imbalances related to stress, diet, or underlying medical conditions can cause heavier vaginal discharge.

Polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), for example, refers to a set of symptoms that occur as a result of hormonal imbalances. According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), PCOS affects up to 5 million females in the United States.

Those with PCOS have higher levels of male hormones called androgens. Increased androgen levels can:

• change the amount or texture of cervical fluid
• cause irregular periods
• prevent ovulation

Not everyone with PCOS will have increased vaginal discharge. Paying attention to other PCOS symptoms may help someone identify and seek treatment for the condition faster.

Some other symptoms of PCOS to look out for include:

• fewer than eight periods in 1 year, or periods that occur every roughly 21 days
• excess facial and body hair
• thinning hair or hair loss
• acne on the face and body
• weight gain
• darkening of the skin on the neck, groin, or breasts
• skin tags on the armpits or neck

Hormonal birth control, such as birth control pills and intrauterine devices, can also cause increased vaginal discharge, especially during the first few months of use.

Excess vaginal discharge and other symptoms, such as spotting and cramping, usually resolve once the body adjusts to the hormonal birth control.

Vaginitis refers to inflammation of the vagina, which can occur from an infection or irritation due to factors such as douches, lubricants, and ill-fitting clothing.

Vaginitis can cause thick vaginal discharge that may be white, gray, yellow, or green.

Other symptoms of vaginitis include:

• foul vaginal odor
• an itching or burning sensation in the genital area
• redness or inflammation of the vagina
• pain or discomfort when urinating
• pain during sexual intercourse

Bacterial vaginosis is a condition that results from an overgrowth of bacteria in the vagina. This vaginal infection is the most common among females aged 15–44 years.

The exact cause of bacterial vaginosis remains unclear. Females can develop bacterial vaginosis after sexual intercourse. However, this condition is not a sexually transmitted infection (STI).

According to the Office on Women's Health, those who have bacterial vaginosis may notice a milky or gray-colored vaginal discharge. Some also report a strong, fishy vaginal odor, especially after sexual intercourse.

Bacterial vaginosis can also cause:

• discomfort when urinating
• painful burning or itching in the vagina
• irritation of the skin around the vagina

Vaginal yeast infections result from an overgrowth of the Candida fungus. Females of all ages can develop a vaginal yeast infection, and nearly 70% will have a yeast infection at some point in their lives.

The most common symptom of a vaginal yeast infection is an intense itching in the vagina and vulva.

Vaginal yeast infections can also cause an odorless vaginal discharge that looks similar to cottage cheese.

Vaginal yeast infections are treatable at home using over-the-counter antifungal ointments. Symptoms should improve within a few days. However, severe infections can last longer and may require medical treatment.

Trichomoniasis is an STI caused by a parasite. Females can develop trichomoniasis after having sex with someone who has the parasite.

Although most people who have trichomoniasis do not experience symptoms, some may have an itching or burning sensation in the genital area.

Trichomoniasis infections can also cause excess vaginal discharge that has a foul or fishy odor and a white, yellow, or green color. It may also be thinner than usual.

Healthy vaginal discharge varies from person to person. It also changes throughout their menstrual cycle.

In general, healthy vaginal discharge can appear thin and watery or thick and cloudy. Clear, white, or off-white vaginal discharge is also perfectly normal.

Some females may have brown, red, or black vaginal discharge at the end of their menstrual periods if their vaginal discharge still contains blood from the uterus.

Natural hormonal changes during ovulation can cause an increase in vaginal discharge, which should return to normal after ovulation.

It is not always necessary to see a doctor about excessive vaginal discharge. However, a female may want to consider seeing their doctor if their vaginal discharge has an abnormal appearance.

Yellow, green, gray, or foul-smelling vaginal discharge could indicate an infection. Other reasons to see a doctor include:

• itching or burning near the genitals
• discomfort or pain when urinating
• discomfort or pain during sexual intercourse

Treating excess vaginal discharge depends on the underlying cause.

People can reduce symptoms of vaginitis by avoiding the source of irritation. Doctors can treat bacterial vaginosis and yeast infections using antibiotics or antifungals.

Doctors can also treat trichomoniasis using antibiotics. The CDC recommend that females wait 7–10 days after receiving treatment before having sex.

Treatment for PCOS varies depending on the individual. A doctor may recommend a combination of lifestyle changes and medications to help people manage their symptoms and regulate their hormone levels.

Maintaining a healthy body weight and eating a varied diet low in added sugars may also help improve some symptoms of PCOS. Birth control pills that contain estrogen or progestin can help balance out excess levels of androgens.

Even healthy vaginal discharge can cause discomfort at times. Here are some tips for managing heavy vaginal discharge:

• Wear panty liners. However, be sure not to let them become too moist, as this can increase the risk of urinary tract infections and vaginitis.
• Choose breathable underwear made from natural fibers such as cotton.
• Avoid wearing tight pants.
• Avoid using hygiene products that contain added fragrances, coloring agents, or other harsh chemicals.
• Keep the genital area clean and dry.
• Wipe from the front to the back when using the bathroom.

Excess vaginal discharge can occur as a result of arousal, ovulation, or infections. Normal vaginal discharge ranges in color from clear or milky to white.

The consistency of vaginal discharge also varies from thin and watery to thick and sticky. Generally, healthy vaginal discharge should be relatively odorless.

A female can speak with a healthcare professional if they notice any symptoms of an infection. Some symptoms to look out for include:

• yellow, green, or gray vaginal discharge
• foul-smelling vaginal discharge
• discharge that looks similar to cottage cheese
• itching or burning in or near the genitals

Doctors can easily treat most vaginal infections using antimicrobial medications. Depending on the severity of the infection, people may see their symptoms improving within a few days to weeks.

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People who have overly large breasts that cause neck, shoulder, or back pain may benefit from breast reduction surgery.

Large breasts can make exercising and other activities difficult. Having large breasts can also have negative psychological effects, as some individuals feel self-conscious about their breast size.

Doctors may recommend breast reduction surgery for males who have gynecomastia, which is a medical condition in which the breast tissue swells due to high levels of estrogen.

Breast reduction surgery can help improve people's physical and psychological well-being.

A doctor will first determine whether someone is a candidate for the surgery. This evaluation can include:

• a routine breast examination
• a mammogram
• the reviewal of a person's medical history
• urine, blood, and other lab tests

A breast reduction usually takes place under general anesthesia. Most people go home straight after surgery, but some do spend 1–2 nights in the hospital.

Before surgery, a person may need to stop taking over-the-counter anti-inflammatory medications, such as aspirin and ibuprofen, as these can increase bleeding.

Doctors also encourage people who smoke to quit several weeks before the procedure. Smoking will increase the risk of nipple or areolar damage, tissue necrosis, and other complications. Therefore, it is essential that people discuss any tobacco product use, including vaping, with the doctor.

The plastic surgeon performing the procedure will use a marker to draw guidelines for the incisions. The size of the breasts, the position of the nipples, and the person's preferences will determine the exact incision pattern.

The wise pattern, or anchor pattern, is the most common skin removal technique for breast reduction surgery, according to the authors of one 2019 article.

A surgeon starts by making an incision around the areola. Then, they continue the incision beneath the breast, at which point they may remove excess skin from the sides of the breast.

After making the incisions, the surgeon will remove excess breast tissue, reshape the remaining tissue, and reposition the nipple and areola. The surgeon will close the remaining skin with sutures and surgical tape.

If the breasts are particularly large, it may be necessary to remove the nipples and areolas from the body and then place them back on the breasts in a procedure called a free nipple graft. The nipples will regrow into the new position, but they will usually be permanently numb afterward.

After the procedure, the surgeon or a nurse will wrap the breasts in gauze bandages. The insertion of small tubes into the breasts is sometimes necessary to drain excess fluid and reduce swelling after the operation. People should avoid showering until a nurse removes these drainage tubes.

The goal of male breast reduction surgery is to remove any excess fatty or glandular tissue to achieve a flatter, firmer-looking chest.

Extra breast tissue in males is called gynecomastia.

Males undergoing breast reduction surgery will receive a local or general anesthetic before the procedure. The procedure can involve liposuction, excision, or a combination of the two.

Liposuction can correct gynecomastia that is due to excess fatty tissue. The surgeon will make micro-incisions along the sides of the breast and insert a thin tube called a cannula. The surgeon will use the cannula to loosen and remove excess fatty tissue.

Gynecomastia can also cause excess skin and glandular breast tissue. In this case, a surgeon will use excision techniques to cut off this tissue.

After reducing the size of the breast, the surgeon will reposition the areola and nipple, if necessary, and close the incisions with sutures.

Most people can go home a few hours after the surgery, as long as they do not experience any complications.

Before they leave the hospital or clinic, they will receive specific postoperative instructions that cover what types of oral and topical medications can help reduce pain and scarring and prevent infections.

People will need plenty of rest while their breasts heal. They should avoid any movements that might stretch the chest muscles or tear the sutures.

People may have difficulty lifting their arms during the first couple of weeks, so they may want to ask a close family member or friend to help them during this time.

They should avoid heavy lifting for several weeks or until a doctor removes their sutures.

People may experience minor complications after breast reduction surgery, such as:

• open wounds or slow healing of the incisions
• excess fluid in the breast tissue
• cellulitis, or infection of the connective tissue
• loss of sensation in the nipples or breasts
• asymmetric appearance of the breasts or nipples
• prominent or thickened scars
• allergic reactions to anesthesia or other medications

Smoking can increase the risk of complications and delay the healing process. People who have obesity may also have a higher risk of postoperative complications.

It is important to note that the breasts may have very small asymmetries after surgery. Most breasts are not exactly the same size or shape to begin with, and the surgeons do try to remove more tissue from the bigger side. However, after the procedure and months after the completion of the healing process, there may be small differences between the breasts.

Also, breast reduction surgery can affect a person's ability to breastfeed.

According to the American Society of Plastic Surgeons, breast reduction procedures cost, on average, approximately $5,680. People will also need to pay for the cost of consultations and follow-up appointments.

Some insurance companies may partially or completely cover the cost of breast reduction surgery if a person needs this procedure to relieve chronic pain or other medical problems.

People who are thinking about having breast reduction surgery may wish to contact their insurance company to inquire about coverage.

Breast reduction surgery is a relatively safe and effective medical procedure that reduces the overall size of a person's breasts.

A plastic surgeon will remove excess fat, breast tissue, and skin through incisions underneath the breasts. They may also reposition the nipple and areola.

Breast reduction surgery is an outpatient procedure with minimal risks. Rare complications include infection, scarring, and loss of sensation in the nipples or breasts.

People considering breast reduction surgery can make an appointment with a board certified plastic surgeon. At the appointment, the surgeon will evaluate a person's medical history and current health status to determine whether breast reduction surgery is a suitable option.

Asexuality is a sexual orientation, just like homosexuality, bisexuality, and heterosexuality. Asexual people are sometimes known as ace or aces for short.

According to The Trevor Project, asexual is an umbrella term that exists on a spectrum. It describes a variety of ways in which a person might identify. While most asexual people have little interest in having sex, they may experience romantic attraction. Others may not.

Asexual people have the same emotional needs as everyone else. Most will desire and form emotionally intimate relationships with other people. Asexual people may be attracted to the same sex or other sexes.

Every asexual person will have a different experience, which may include:

• falling in love
• experiencing arousal
• having orgasms
• masturbating
• getting married
• having children

In the initialism LGBTQIAP+, the A stands for asexual spectrum, or a-spec. Several identities fall under this category.

Asexual people have the same emotional needs as everyone else. Everyone is different, and how individuals fulfill those needs varies widely.

Some aces may want romantic relationships. They can feel romantically attracted to other people, which may include the same sex or other sexes.

Other aces prefer close friendships to intimate relationships. Some will experience arousal, and some will masturbate while having no interest in having sex with another person.

Some asexual people do not want to have sexual contact, while others may feel "sex-neutral." Other asexual people will engage in sexual contact to gain an emotional connection.

Other common identities which fall into the asexual spectrum include:

Aromantic

Aromantic people experience little or no romantic attraction. They prefer close friendships and other nonromantic relationships.

Many aromantic people will form queer platonic partnerships, or QPPs. QPPs are platonic yet have the same level of commitment as romantic relationships. Some people in QPPs choose to live together or have children together.

Demisexual

People who are demisexual experience sexual or romantic attraction, but only after they have formed a close, emotional connection with someone.

Graysexual or grayromantic

Graysexual or grayromantic people identify somewhere between sexual and asexual. This can include but is not limited to:

• people who only experience romantic attraction sometimes
• people who only experience sexual attraction sometimes
• people who experience sexual attraction but have a very low sex drive
• people who desire and enjoy sexual or romantic relationships but only in very specific circumstances

Asexuality is a sexual orientation. Typically, an asexual person would always have had little interest in sexual contact with other people. It is not the same as suddenly losing interest in sex or choosing to abstain from sex while still experiencing sexual attraction.

Asexuality is not the same as celibacy or abstinence. If someone is celibate or abstains from sex, this means they have taken a conscious decision to not take part in sexual activity despite experiencing sexual attraction.

It is also important to note that asexuality is not the same as hypoactive sexual desire disorder or sexual aversion disorder. These are medical conditions associated with anxiety towards sexual contact. Social pressure may make asexual people feel anxious about sex, but that is different.

Asexuality is not:

• abstinence on religious grounds
• sexual repression, aversion, or dysfunction
• a fear of intimacy
• loss of libido due to age, illness, or other circumstances

Just as some people are gay or bisexual, some people are asexual. If someone is asexual, it means they have no or little interest in sex. They may still feel romantic attraction, but equally, they may not.

There is a wide range of identities on the asexual spectrum, from people who experience no sexual or romantic attraction to people who engage in sexual contact under some conditions. Many asexual people form meaningful, lasting relationships, and some get married or have children.

Asexuality is not the same as celibacy or abstinence, both of which mean someone experiences sexual attraction but chooses not to act on it.

There is little evidence that home remedies can ease fibroid pain. However, there are a few methods that people can try.

These include:

• taking over-the-counter (OTC) medications, such as nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
• using heating pads
• practicing yoga or stretching
• doing gentle exercise
• eating a healthful diet

Some people may be interested in trying herbal remedies to shrink the fibroids and ease the pain. A 2013 Cochrane review analyzed previous research on the use of common herbal remedies — including Tripterygium wilfordii and Guizhi Fuling — to treat fibroids and their symptoms.

The researchers concluded that the quality of the data in the reviewed studies was insufficient to support the use of these herbal remedies.

Making lifestyle changes may be a more effective way for people to ease their fibroid pain.

Learn more about natural treatments and dietary changes for fibroids here.

A person can take medication to help ease fibroid pain. However, medication will not cure fibroids, and a person may require surgery later on.

These types of drugs may help ease fibroid symptoms:

• Birth control pills: These can help reduce period pain. They may also make periods lighter, but they will not shrink fibroids.
• A hormonal intrauterine device (IUD): This device releases progestin, which can help with painful, heavy periods but will not shrink fibroids.
• Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) agonists: These drugs counteract the effect of the hormones that regulate a person's period. They can stop monthly bleeding and may help shrink fibroids.

The GnRH agonists may cause side effects, so doctors recommend that people take these for no longer than 6 months. After a person stops taking these drugs, the fibroids typically grow back.

When fibroids cause pain, and medication does not work, a person may consider surgery. Doctors may recommend one of the following surgical procedures:

• Myomectomy: A myomectomy is the removal of the fibroids from the uterus. This procedure does not remove the uterus, so it is still possible for the person to get pregnant afterward.
• Ablation: This procedure involves using heat to destroy the fibroids. It will not remove the fibroids altogether, but they may shrink.
• Laparoscopic power morcellation: For this procedure, a surgeon will make a tiny incision and insert a surgical instrument through it to break up fibroids. However, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) caution that this treatment carries significant risks.
• Hysterectomy: A hysterectomy removes the uterus. Sometimes, the surgeon will also remove the ovaries.

Learn more about the types of surgery for fibroids here.

In addition to pain, some people experience the following symptoms:

• very heavy bleeding
• anemia from heavy periods
• frequent bowel movements or urination
• swelling or pressure in the stomach

Many people find out that they have fibroids during a routine pelvic exam. A doctor can often feel the fibroids in the uterus during the exam.

A doctor can also detect fibroids by performing imaging tests, such as:

A doctor may sometimes recommend a hysterosalpingogram, which uses dye to see the uterus during an X-ray, or a sonohysterogram, which uses a saline solution to enhance the view of the uterus during an ultrasound.

Doctors do not fully understand what causes fibroids, but some possible causes and risk factors include:

• Genetics: Fibroids may run in families, and certain genetic mutations increase the risk of these growths.
• Hormones: Estrogen, progesterone, and growth hormones may increase the risk. Therefore, people who take hormonal birth control or have growth hormone injections may be more likely to develop fibroids.
• Nutritional imbalances: Some research suggests that there is an association between vitamin D deficiency and the development of fibroids.
• Race and ethnicity: African American women appear to be more likely than white women to develop fibroids.
• Obesity: People who have overweight or obesity are two to three times more likely to develop fibroids than those with a moderate body weight.

It is not possible for a doctor to diagnose fibroids based on a person's symptoms alone.

Many other conditions, including infections, pregnancy loss, and cancer, may share some of the symptoms of fibroids, so it is important to see a doctor for unusual bleeding or pelvic pain.

A person who already knows that they have fibroids should see a doctor if they experience:

• sudden worsening of symptoms
• heavy bleeding
• pressure or swelling in the abdomen
• returning fibroid symptoms after fibroid surgery

Many people develop uterine fibroids without being aware of them. However, some individuals may experience severe pain and need surgery or other treatments.

A person experiencing fibroid pain can stretch, use heat, or take OTC medications, but if the pain does not improve, they should see a doctor.

A doctor can guide treatment decisions by helping a person weigh up the risks and benefits of various symptom management options.

Focusing and refocusing on a screen for long periods can cause eye strain, which can also result from problems with vision.

Fatigue from eye strain can cause pain behind one or both eyes. A person may also experience pain in their eyes or blurry vision.

Causes

Some underlying health issues that cause eye strain include:

• optic neuritis, which is inflammation of the optic nerve.
• scleritis, which is severe inflammation of the white part of the eye
• glaucoma, a disease that affects the optic nerve
• Graves' disease, an autoimmune disorder

Staring at a computer, TV, or phone screen for long periods can also cause eye strain.

Migraine is a very common condition, affecting about 12% of people in the United States.

A migraine headache can cause extreme pain behind the eyes, and it can last for up to 72 hours.

In addition to a migraine headache, a person may experience:

• eye pain
• dizziness
• weakness
• nausea
• sensitivity to light and sound
• mood changes
• vomiting
• impaired vision

Causes

While doctors are unsure what, precisely, causes migraine, they recognize several common triggers. These are not the same for everyone.

Migraine triggers may be:

• emotional, such as stress or anxiety
• dietary, such as chocolate or alcohol
• physical, such as a lack of sleep or poor posture
• hormonal, such as menstruation
• environmental, such as strong smells, smoke, or flickering lights
• medication-related, involving sleeping pills or hormone therapies, for example

Sinusitis is inflammation or congestion of the sinuses. This can create pressure, causing pain behind the eyes.

It can also cause pain and pressure in other parts of the face, such as the forehead and cheeks.

Some common symptoms of sinusitis include:

• nasal congestion
• fatigue
• pain that worsens when the person is lying down
• aching in the upper teeth

Causes

Sinusitis could result from bacteria, fungi, or a virus becoming trapped in the sinuses because of congestion. The congestion may have stemmed from allergies or a respiratory infection, for example.

Nasal polyps and dental surgery can also cause sinus pain and pressure.

Learn about some remedies for sinusitis here.

When a person experiences between one and eight short, very painful headaches over the course of a day, they have had a cluster headache.

Cluster headaches often occur in cycles — a person may experience regular cluster headaches for a few weeks or months, followed by a period of relief.

These headaches are extremely painful and occur on one side of the head. Often, additional symptoms develop on the same side as the headache. These symptoms can include:

• a stuffy or runny nostril
• a teary or red eye
• flushing
• sweating

Causes

Doctors are unsure of the cause of cluster headaches, and there has not been extensive research, though these headaches are not uncommon.

Researchers generally believe that more males than females experience cluster headaches. There may also be a genetic component, and some people may have a higher risk than others.

Learn more about cluster headaches here.

Tension headaches are the most common type of headache, and they are more common in females than males.

Some people experience tension headaches one or two times per month, while others experience them more often. If this continues for 3 months or longer, doctors classify these headaches as chronic.

Tension headaches usually cause pain behind the eyes and a feeling of pressure around the forehead.

Also, a tension headache may cause tenderness in the scalp. The pain of a tension headache may be dull, occur in the forehead, and extend to the neck.

Causes

Tension headaches develop for a variety of reasons, including:

• cold temperatures
• staring at a screen for a long time
• driving long distances
• muscle contractions in the neck or head

Avoiding the various factors below can often help relieve or prevent pain behind the eyes:

• loud noises
• strong perfume and other odors
• infections
• alcohol use
• hunger
• stress
• changes in hormones
• fatigue
• bright lights
• a lack of sleep

Over-the-counter pain medication can often relieve mild or moderate headaches, but when the pain is severe, prescription medication may be necessary.

A doctor may prescribe antidepressants, to help regulate hormone levels, or muscle relaxants, when another issue is responsible for the pain.

Trying the following things at home can also help:

• limiting or avoiding caffeine
• avoiding alcohol
• refraining from using tobacco products
• exercising regularly
• avoiding processed foods

A person may find relief from a migraine episode by resting in a darkened room. Placing a cool, damp towel over the eyes may help, as well.

Meanwhile, antibiotics are a fairly standard treatment for sinusitis when bacteria are responsible. Nasal decongestant sprays can also help. Do not use these sprays for more than 3–4 days at a time, however, or there is a risk that the nasal passages may swell shut.

People can often relieve eye strain by using the 20-20-20 rule.

Read more about the 20-20-20 rule here.

If a person experiences headaches behind the eyes frequently, they should see a doctor. The doctor may recommend an eye examination and prescribe treatments that are not available over the counter.

Making lifestyle adjustments may also prevent the pain from recurring.

Headaches behind the eyes can be quite painful and occur with other symptoms. They can stem from a variety of health issues, and identifying the cause is the first step toward treatment.

It may also help to avoid certain triggers, such as alcohol, caffeine, and tobacco products, and make other lifestyle adjustments.

A doctor can identify the underlying cause and provide additional support, including medication.

According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), pregnant women are more likely to experience severe symptoms and complications from the flu because their lungs, heart, and immune system change during pregnancy.

Some pregnant women who get the flu may also develop bronchitis, which may turn into pneumonia.

However, there are more serious complications associated with the flu during pregnancy although these are rare:

Avoiding the flu could increase the chances of completing a healthy pregnancy. According to a 2016 study, having the flu shot during pregnancy reduced the risk of stillbirth by 51% compared with those who did not get vaccinated.

The flu during pregnancy can cause harm to the fetus. The baby may be born prematurely or have a low birth weight.

According to the CDC, the flu shot has a long safety record indicating that it is safe to give to those who are pregnant.

However, pregnant women should not use the live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), which comes in the form of a nasal spray. This is because it contains live microorganisms of the virus, which can cross the placenta and lead to a viral infection in the fetus.

However, the CDC note that the potential damage to the fetus is "theoretical," but healthcare providers do not administer the LAIV vaccine as a precaution.

A flu shot may help decrease the chances of a person contracting the flu. It may also help reduce the need to go to the hospital due to potential complications.

According to a 2018 study, a pregnant woman who gets the flu shot is 40% less likely to be hospitalized if they catch the flu.

The effects of the flu shot can also pass on to the baby once born, giving the baby a few months of added protection from the flu.

If a pregnant woman has pre-existing medical conditions, they do not need to get written consent of permission from a doctor to obtain the flu shot.

Learn more about the safety of the flu shot here.

The flu has several identified symptoms that are the same for nearly everyone, which include:

Antiviral medications can help relieve symptoms of flu in pregnant women, as well as reduce the potential for complications.

They work best when a person takes them within 48 hours after symptoms appear.

Pregnant women should avoid taking medicines such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen and should talk to their healthcare provider before taking any over-the-counter (OTC) or prescription medications.

However, if it is absolutely necessary, pregnant women may take acetaminophen in the smallest effective amounts for the shortest possible time.

Otherwise, the best treatment typically involves rest and getting enough fluids.

A pregnant woman should see a doctor as soon as possible if they think they have caught the flu.

In most cases, a healthcare provider will start the woman on an antiviral medication as soon as possible.

A woman should seek emergency medical attention if they are pregnant and experience any of the following symptoms:

• trouble breathing
• confusion
• dizziness
• vaginal bleeding
• a high fever
• chest pain or pressure
• severe vomiting
• a decrease in fetal movement
• seizures

If a pregnant woman is worried at any time, they should contact their healthcare provider.

The most effective prevention method is getting the flu shot. A woman should talk to their doctor about getting a flu shot as soon as it is available for the season.

However, there are several steps that a woman can take to help prevent contracting the flu, which includes:

• frequently washing hands with warm water and soap
• getting adequate rest
• avoiding close contact with sick family or friends
• reducing stress
• exercising regularly
• eating a healthful diet

The flu can be much more severe during pregnancy.

The best option is to get the flu shot. A flu shot will not affect the health of the mother or fetus.

If the woman gets the flu, they should visit their doctor as soon as possible. A doctor might prescribe antiviral medications. Otherwise, a person should rest and consume plenty of fluids.

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Testosterone injections are injections of isolated testosterone. This hormone is present in both males and females, but the levels are naturally higher in males.

Testosterone therapy is becoming more common in the United States. Before recommending long-term testosterone therapy, doctors should make sure that the person understands and has weighed up the risks and benefits.

The following sections look at the uses of testosterone injections.

Treating low testosterone levels in males

Doctors may recommend testosterone injections to treat males with low testosterone levels. Low testosterone production by the testicles is called hypogonadism.

Low testosterone can have negative effects. The symptoms of low testosterone in males include a lower sperm count, a decrease in bone or muscle mass, increased body fat, and erectile dysfunction. Normal total testosterone levels in the bloodstream in healthy adult males are 280–1,100 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dl).

When treating hypogonadism, testosterone therapy can have the following benefits:

• improved sexual function
• increased lean muscle mass and strength
• improved mood
• better cognitive function
• possible reduction in osteoporosis

It is important to note that this therapy treats the symptoms of low testosterone rather than the underlying cause.

Anyone who suspects that they may have low testosterone can see a doctor for a diagnosis. However, the symptoms are quite general and could be due to other conditions or lifestyle factors.

Not all males with low testosterone will need treatment, and it is not always safe. The FDA have approved testosterone replacement therapy only for males with low testosterone due to disorders of the testicles, brain, or pituitary gland and not for natural age-related declines.

Read about other ways to increase testosterone levels and eight foods that may increase testosterone here.

Testosterone therapy in females

Testosterone therapy is more controversial in females than in males.

Normal total testosterone levels in healthy adult females are 15–70 ng/dl. Low testosterone in females can cause fertility problems, irregular periods, vaginal dryness, and a low sex drive. Despite this, doctors do not often recommend testosterone injections to treat low testosterone in females, as they can have masculinizing effects.

However, doctors may recommend testosterone therapy to help with hypoactive sexual desire disorder in females after menopause. Research has not supported their use for other signs and symptoms that people may experience after menopause, which include anxiety, mood changes, weight gain, and reduced bone density.

Currently, the FDA have not approved any products for testosterone therapy in females. Additionally, in the USA, there are no readily available formulations that provide the recommended treatment dose of 300 micrograms per day for females. As a result, a female will typically need a compounding pharmacy to fill the prescription.

Masculinizing hormone therapy

Testosterone therapy allows people to develop a more masculine appearance. Transgender men, nonbinary people, and other individuals may choose to use testosterone injections as part of a gender transition. This use of testosterone injections is known as masculinizing hormone therapy.

Testosterone therapy helps a person develop male sexual characteristics and reduce female characteristics, and it can lead to any of the following changes:

• changes in emotional and social functioning
• growing more facial hair
• increased body hair
• increased acne
• a deeper voice
• a receding hairline with male pattern baldness
• changes in the location of body fat
• increases in muscle mass
• absence of menstrual periods

These testosterone therapy regimens are similar to those that treat hypogonadism in males. Taking testosterone injections once a week may be the best way to keep the levels of this hormone even.

Testosterone injections can come in several varieties. These include:

• testosterone cypionate (Depo-Testosterone)
• testosterone enanthate (Xyosted and also available in its generic form)
• testosterone undecanoate (Aveed, which is a long acting formulation)

When a person receives a testosterone injection, the hormone directly enters the body through the muscle. People can choose between two methods:

• self-administering the injections at home, using a home injection kit to inject the hormone into the thigh
• having a doctor administer them into the buttocks muscle during a visit to the doctor's office

When having testosterone injections, people will usually visit their doctor every few months for monitoring. Treatments could last for a lifetime or be short-term, depending on the individual's circumstances.

Testosterone injections may be safe for many people when they follow a doctor's instructions. However, research has also linked testosterone therapy with several side effects and possible complications.

Possible negative effects of testosterone therapy may include:

• an increased risk of cardiovascular complications
• worsened symptoms in the lower urinary tract
• polycythemia, a rare type of blood cancer
• an increased risk of venous thrombosis

Some people may have an allergic reaction to testosterone injections. For example, testosterone undecanoate may cause a serious allergic reaction or breathing issues following the injection. Symptoms can include breathing problems, dizziness, and skin rashes.

Other forms of testosterone, including testosterone enanthate, may increase blood pressure, which can raise the risk of a stroke or heart attack.

People who have had strokes, heart attacks, heart disease, or high blood pressure should make the doctor aware of this before starting testosterone injections, as they may have a higher risk of complications.

If someone experiences any of the following symptoms after a testosterone injection, they should seek emergency medical attention:

• shortness of breath
• slow or difficult speech
• chest pain
• weakness or numbness in an arm or leg
• pain in the arms, neck, back, or jaw
• dizziness
• faintness

If a doctor prescribes male testosterone injections to an adolescent to treat a constitutional delay of growth and puberty, the goal will be to achieve an accelerated growth spurt during puberty. This therapy should not affect the final adult height that the adolescent reaches.

People may experience some mild side effects from testosterone injections, such as:

• breast enlargement or pain
• acne
• a deeper voice
• tiredness
• hoarseness
• back pain
• redness, bruising, pain, bleeding, or hardness at the injection site
• trouble sleeping or staying awake
• weight gain
• joint pain
• mood swings
• headaches

A person should speak to their doctor if they experience more serious side effects, such as:

• nausea or vomiting
• lower leg pain, redness, or warmth
• swelling of the hands, ankles, feet, or lower legs
• trouble breathing
• yellowing of the eyes or skin
• excessively long lasting erections
• changes in urination, such as difficulty urinating, increased frequency, weak flow, urinary urgency, or blood in the urine
• severe pain in the upper right part of the abdomen
• mood changes, including depression, anxiety, or feeling suicidal

Doctors may prescribe testosterone injections to treat low testosterone due to certain medical conditions in males. It does not cure the underlying condition, but it may help alleviate some of the symptoms. People can also use these injections to treat sexual dysfunction resulting from bodily changes after menopause or as part of masculinizing hormone therapy.

People should be aware of the possible serious complications of using testosterone in both the short-term and long-term. Doctors should do a thorough evaluation and, if testosterone replacement therapy is an option, discuss the benefit and risks with the person before prescribing it.

It is important to follow a doctor's instructions at all times to reduce any risks.