Health & Wellness

According to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), pregnant women are more likely to experience severe symptoms and complications from the flu because their lungs, heart, and immune system change during pregnancy.

Some pregnant women who get the flu may also develop bronchitis, which may turn into pneumonia.

However, there are more serious complications associated with the flu during pregnancy although these are rare:

Avoiding the flu could increase the chances of completing a healthy pregnancy. According to a 2016 study, having the flu shot during pregnancy reduced the risk of stillbirth by 51% compared with those who did not get vaccinated.

The flu during pregnancy can cause harm to the fetus. The baby may be born prematurely or have a low birth weight.

According to the CDC, the flu shot has a long safety record indicating that it is safe to give to those who are pregnant.

However, pregnant women should not use the live attenuated influenza vaccine (LAIV), which comes in the form of a nasal spray. This is because it contains live microorganisms of the virus, which can cross the placenta and lead to a viral infection in the fetus.

However, the CDC note that the potential damage to the fetus is "theoretical," but healthcare providers do not administer the LAIV vaccine as a precaution.

A flu shot may help decrease the chances of a person contracting the flu. It may also help reduce the need to go to the hospital due to potential complications.

According to a 2018 study, a pregnant woman who gets the flu shot is 40% less likely to be hospitalized if they catch the flu.

The effects of the flu shot can also pass on to the baby once born, giving the baby a few months of added protection from the flu.

If a pregnant woman has pre-existing medical conditions, they do not need to get written consent of permission from a doctor to obtain the flu shot.

Learn more about the safety of the flu shot here.

The flu has several identified symptoms that are the same for nearly everyone, which include:

Antiviral medications can help relieve symptoms of flu in pregnant women, as well as reduce the potential for complications.

They work best when a person takes them within 48 hours after symptoms appear.

Pregnant women should avoid taking medicines such as ibuprofen and acetaminophen and should talk to their healthcare provider before taking any over-the-counter (OTC) or prescription medications.

However, if it is absolutely necessary, pregnant women may take acetaminophen in the smallest effective amounts for the shortest possible time.

Otherwise, the best treatment typically involves rest and getting enough fluids.

A pregnant woman should see a doctor as soon as possible if they think they have caught the flu.

In most cases, a healthcare provider will start the woman on an antiviral medication as soon as possible.

A woman should seek emergency medical attention if they are pregnant and experience any of the following symptoms:

• trouble breathing
• confusion
• dizziness
• vaginal bleeding
• a high fever
• chest pain or pressure
• severe vomiting
• a decrease in fetal movement
• seizures

If a pregnant woman is worried at any time, they should contact their healthcare provider.

The most effective prevention method is getting the flu shot. A woman should talk to their doctor about getting a flu shot as soon as it is available for the season.

However, there are several steps that a woman can take to help prevent contracting the flu, which includes:

• frequently washing hands with warm water and soap
• getting adequate rest
• avoiding close contact with sick family or friends
• reducing stress
• exercising regularly
• eating a healthful diet

The flu can be much more severe during pregnancy.

The best option is to get the flu shot. A flu shot will not affect the health of the mother or fetus.

If the woman gets the flu, they should visit their doctor as soon as possible. A doctor might prescribe antiviral medications. Otherwise, a person should rest and consume plenty of fluids.

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Testosterone injections are injections of isolated testosterone. This hormone is present in both males and females, but the levels are naturally higher in males.

Testosterone therapy is becoming more common in the United States. Before recommending long-term testosterone therapy, doctors should make sure that the person understands and has weighed up the risks and benefits.

The following sections look at the uses of testosterone injections.

Treating low testosterone levels in males

Doctors may recommend testosterone injections to treat males with low testosterone levels. Low testosterone production by the testicles is called hypogonadism.

Low testosterone can have negative effects. The symptoms of low testosterone in males include a lower sperm count, a decrease in bone or muscle mass, increased body fat, and erectile dysfunction. Normal total testosterone levels in the bloodstream in healthy adult males are 280–1,100 nanograms per deciliter (ng/dl).

When treating hypogonadism, testosterone therapy can have the following benefits:

• improved sexual function
• increased lean muscle mass and strength
• improved mood
• better cognitive function
• possible reduction in osteoporosis

It is important to note that this therapy treats the symptoms of low testosterone rather than the underlying cause.

Anyone who suspects that they may have low testosterone can see a doctor for a diagnosis. However, the symptoms are quite general and could be due to other conditions or lifestyle factors.

Not all males with low testosterone will need treatment, and it is not always safe. The FDA have approved testosterone replacement therapy only for males with low testosterone due to disorders of the testicles, brain, or pituitary gland and not for natural age-related declines.

Read about other ways to increase testosterone levels and eight foods that may increase testosterone here.

Testosterone therapy in females

Testosterone therapy is more controversial in females than in males.

Normal total testosterone levels in healthy adult females are 15–70 ng/dl. Low testosterone in females can cause fertility problems, irregular periods, vaginal dryness, and a low sex drive. Despite this, doctors do not often recommend testosterone injections to treat low testosterone in females, as they can have masculinizing effects.

However, doctors may recommend testosterone therapy to help with hypoactive sexual desire disorder in females after menopause. Research has not supported their use for other signs and symptoms that people may experience after menopause, which include anxiety, mood changes, weight gain, and reduced bone density.

Currently, the FDA have not approved any products for testosterone therapy in females. Additionally, in the USA, there are no readily available formulations that provide the recommended treatment dose of 300 micrograms per day for females. As a result, a female will typically need a compounding pharmacy to fill the prescription.

Masculinizing hormone therapy

Testosterone therapy allows people to develop a more masculine appearance. Transgender men, nonbinary people, and other individuals may choose to use testosterone injections as part of a gender transition. This use of testosterone injections is known as masculinizing hormone therapy.

Testosterone therapy helps a person develop male sexual characteristics and reduce female characteristics, and it can lead to any of the following changes:

• changes in emotional and social functioning
• growing more facial hair
• increased body hair
• increased acne
• a deeper voice
• a receding hairline with male pattern baldness
• changes in the location of body fat
• increases in muscle mass
• absence of menstrual periods

These testosterone therapy regimens are similar to those that treat hypogonadism in males. Taking testosterone injections once a week may be the best way to keep the levels of this hormone even.

Testosterone injections can come in several varieties. These include:

• testosterone cypionate (Depo-Testosterone)
• testosterone enanthate (Xyosted and also available in its generic form)
• testosterone undecanoate (Aveed, which is a long acting formulation)

When a person receives a testosterone injection, the hormone directly enters the body through the muscle. People can choose between two methods:

• self-administering the injections at home, using a home injection kit to inject the hormone into the thigh
• having a doctor administer them into the buttocks muscle during a visit to the doctor's office

When having testosterone injections, people will usually visit their doctor every few months for monitoring. Treatments could last for a lifetime or be short-term, depending on the individual's circumstances.

Testosterone injections may be safe for many people when they follow a doctor's instructions. However, research has also linked testosterone therapy with several side effects and possible complications.

Possible negative effects of testosterone therapy may include:

• an increased risk of cardiovascular complications
• worsened symptoms in the lower urinary tract
• polycythemia, a rare type of blood cancer
• an increased risk of venous thrombosis

Some people may have an allergic reaction to testosterone injections. For example, testosterone undecanoate may cause a serious allergic reaction or breathing issues following the injection. Symptoms can include breathing problems, dizziness, and skin rashes.

Other forms of testosterone, including testosterone enanthate, may increase blood pressure, which can raise the risk of a stroke or heart attack.

People who have had strokes, heart attacks, heart disease, or high blood pressure should make the doctor aware of this before starting testosterone injections, as they may have a higher risk of complications.

If someone experiences any of the following symptoms after a testosterone injection, they should seek emergency medical attention:

• shortness of breath
• slow or difficult speech
• chest pain
• weakness or numbness in an arm or leg
• pain in the arms, neck, back, or jaw
• dizziness
• faintness

If a doctor prescribes male testosterone injections to an adolescent to treat a constitutional delay of growth and puberty, the goal will be to achieve an accelerated growth spurt during puberty. This therapy should not affect the final adult height that the adolescent reaches.

People may experience some mild side effects from testosterone injections, such as:

• breast enlargement or pain
• acne
• a deeper voice
• tiredness
• hoarseness
• back pain
• redness, bruising, pain, bleeding, or hardness at the injection site
• trouble sleeping or staying awake
• weight gain
• joint pain
• mood swings
• headaches

A person should speak to their doctor if they experience more serious side effects, such as:

• nausea or vomiting
• lower leg pain, redness, or warmth
• swelling of the hands, ankles, feet, or lower legs
• trouble breathing
• yellowing of the eyes or skin
• excessively long lasting erections
• changes in urination, such as difficulty urinating, increased frequency, weak flow, urinary urgency, or blood in the urine
• severe pain in the upper right part of the abdomen
• mood changes, including depression, anxiety, or feeling suicidal

Doctors may prescribe testosterone injections to treat low testosterone due to certain medical conditions in males. It does not cure the underlying condition, but it may help alleviate some of the symptoms. People can also use these injections to treat sexual dysfunction resulting from bodily changes after menopause or as part of masculinizing hormone therapy.

People should be aware of the possible serious complications of using testosterone in both the short-term and long-term. Doctors should do a thorough evaluation and, if testosterone replacement therapy is an option, discuss the benefit and risks with the person before prescribing it.

It is important to follow a doctor's instructions at all times to reduce any risks.

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The dilated eye exam is a medical exam that checks for eye conditions and diseases in their early stages.

Before the eye dilation test begins, the eye doctor — either an ophthalmologist or an optometrist — will administer the dilating eye drops. According to the American Academy of Ophthalmology, eye dilation then takes effect within 20–30 minutes. However, people with blue or green eyes will experience dilation faster than people with brown eyes.

The dilated eye exam may include a few additional tests, such as:

• Pupil response test: The doctor shines a small flashlight into the eyes to see how the pupils react to the light.
• Eye muscle function test: The doctor asks the person to follow a moving object with their eyes. This movement allows the doctor to check for problems with the muscles surrounding the eyes.
• Visual acuity test: The doctor asks the person to read letters up close and at a distance. The results indicate how clearly a person can see.
• Visual field test: The person holds their eyes still while reporting how well they can see objects in their periphery. This test assesses a person's peripheral vision.
• Tonometry test: A special machine quickly puffs a small amount of air into the eye. This technique measures the pressure within the eye.

While the dilated eye exam may be over rather quickly, the dilation itself continues. During this time, a person may experience the following effects of eye dilation:

• blurred vision
• sensitivity to bright lights, such as sunlight
• difficulty focusing on nearby objects

The duration of eye dilation can vary widely. According to the American Association for Pediatric Ophthalmology and Strabismus, the average dilation lasts from 4 to 24 hours.

However, several different factors affect how long the eyes remain dilated. These include:

• Eye color: People with lighter colored eyes tend to experience the effects of eye dilation for longer than those with darker colored eyes.
• Age: Younger children tend to have a very strong focus mechanism in the eye. Therefore, they require stronger drugs to dilate the pupils. As a result, a child's eyes may stay dilated for 24 hours or longer.
• Type of drug: The type of drug that a doctor uses to dilate the pupils will affect how long the eyes remain dilated. For example, a doctor may use weaker eye dilation drops when treating a person with nearsightedness because this helps limit side effects.

Some people feel comfortable enough to drive immediately after their eye exam.

However, doctors may recommend avoiding driving while the eyes remain dilated, especially if the person has not experienced the effects before.

Where possible, people should arrange for a friend or family member to drive them home after their eye exam.

Eye dilation can cause several side effects. The most immediate effect is stinging, which generally occurs when the eye dilation drops come into contact with the eyes. In some cases, doctors may apply numbing drops to the eye beforehand to prevent the stinging sensation.

Once the dilation drops take effect, the person may experience one or more of the following:

• blurred vision
• difficulty focusing on nearby objects
• light sensitivity

In very rare cases, a person may experience an allergic reaction to the eye dilation drops, which may result in red and swollen eyes. More severe allergic reactions could produce the following symptoms:

Managing side effects

People can take some steps to manage the effects of eye dilation. These include:

Wearing sunglasses: People can take a pair of sunglasses along to their eye appointment to wear after the eye exam. Wearing these will help protect eyes that are light-sensitive due to pupil dilation. Most eye doctors provide temporary sunglasses for their patients.

Avoiding close work: Close work, such as reading and focusing on a computer screen, can be difficult during eye dilation. People whose jobs involve these tasks should arrange a few extra hours off work, where possible.

Eye dilation can sometimes result in a temporary condition called cycloplegia. Cycloplegia is paralysis of the eye muscle that allows a person to focus.

For most people, cycloplegia occurs only while the eye dilation drops are taking effect. In rare cases, eye dilation may cause cycloplegia to last for several days. Although this can be very concerning, the condition is temporary and will go away with time.

Having certain preexisting eye conditions may also complicate the effects of eye dilation. Conditions such as a lazy eye, glaucoma, and cataracts can affect a person's vision. In some cases, these visual problems may worsen while the eye dilation drops are taking effect.

Eye dilation is necessary for several types of eye test. These tests are important for detecting various eye conditions and diseases in their early stages.

While the effects of eye dilation drops can be uncomfortable and unpleasant, they are temporary.

Most people can expect eye dilation to last somewhere between 4 and 24 hours. Generally, the effects last the longest in people with lighter colored eyes and in children who require stronger doses of eye dilation drops.

People who are concerned about the effects of eye dilation should speak with their eye doctor.

Medical research has identified around 150 symptoms that people may experience in the days leading up to a period. Food cravings, increased hunger, water retention, and swelling are premenstrual symptoms that may make a person feel like they are gaining weight.

Appetite changes

People may notice changes in their appetite throughout their menstrual cycle. For some, these changes may lead to concerns over weight gain.

Changes in appetite tend to occur at distinct stages of the menstrual cycle called the follicular phase and the luteal phase.

• The follicular phase. This phase begins when a person bleeds and ends before they ovulate. Estrogen is the dominant hormone during this phase. Since estrogen suppresses appetite, a person may find that they eat less during this phase.
• The luteal phase. This phase begins after ovulation and lasts up to the first day of the next period. During the luteal phase, progesterone is the dominant hormone. Since progesterone stimulates appetite, a person may find that they eat more during this phase.

Previous studies have shown that females eat more calories during the luteal phase compared with the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle.

A 2016 study found that females tend to eat more protein during the luteal phase of menstruation. Females also report increased food cravings, particularly for sweets, chocolate, and salty foods.

Not all studies show that food cravings result in an increased number of calories consumed and an increase in weight. However, people who do consume more calories as a result of their cravings may experience some weight gain.

Water retention and swelling

People may experience increased water and salt retention around the time of their period. This is due to an increase in the hormone progesterone. Progesterone activates the hormone aldosterone, which causes the kidneys to retain water and salt.

Water retention can lead to bloating and swelling, particularly in the abdomen, arms, and legs. This can give the appearance of weight gain. It may also make a person's clothes feel tighter.

However, water retention does not always signify weight gain. A 2014 study investigated water retention in females who complained of swelling during their period.

Circumference measurements taken throughout the study indicated that the participants did have significant swelling in the following areas:

• face
• breasts
• abdomen
• upper and lower limbs
• pubic areas

However, there were no significant changes in weight throughout the participant's cycles.

Many people experience both physical and psychological symptoms during a period. Symptoms may include:

People may feel additional symptoms in the days leading up to a period. Symptoms may include:

• thirst and appetite changes
• breast tenderness
• bloating
• headache
• swelling of the hands or feet

The type, severity, and duration of symptoms will vary from person to person. Additionally, some people may experience a combination of symptoms, while others may not experience any at all.

Premenstrual symptoms tend to start a few days before bleeding, or menstruation, and stop once menstruation occurs.

Medical providers can diagnose people with premenstrual syndrome (PMS) if:

• the person has a pattern of symptoms 5 days before their period for at least three cycles in a row
• the symptoms end within 4 days after their period starts
• the symptoms interfere with their normal activities

The following are some examples of how to prevent weight gain during a period.

Diet

The American College of Obstetricians and Gynecologists recommend the following eating habits to help lessen the effects of PMS:

• eating complex carbohydrates to reduce mood symptoms and food cravings
• eating calcium rich foods, including yogurt and leafy green vegetables
• reducing fat, salt, and sugar intake
• avoiding or limiting caffeine and alcoholic beverages
• keeping blood sugar levels stable by eating smaller meals more often

Supplements

A doctor may also recommend taking a magnesium supplement. This can help to alleviate the following symptoms of PMS:

• bloating
• breast tenderness
• mood disturbances

Medication

Sometimes, doctors may prescribe diuretics to people who complain of water retention during their period. Diuretics help to reduce the amount of water that the body stores.

Researchers have found that certain oral contraceptives can also help reduce water retention. In a 2007 study, females who took 3 milligrams (mg) of drospirenone and 30 micrograms (mcg) of ethinyl estradiol had reduced water retention. Nonetheless, their body weight remained unchanged.

Doctors often use combined oral contraceptives to treat the symptoms of premenstrual syndrome.

Hormonal fluctuations that occur throughout the menstrual cycle can affect a person's appetite. In particular, people may experience food cravings in the days leading up to a period.

Females may also experience water retention and bloating, which can give the appearance of weight gain.

There are several steps people can take to prevent weight gain during a period. A person can practice healthful eating habits throughout their cycle. This includes eating less salt, sugar, and fat, and stocking up on low calorie snacks to satisfy food cravings. In addition, magnesium supplements may help to alleviate bloating and other symptoms of PMS.

People who are concerned about fluid retention should talk to their doctor. The doctor may prescribe diuretics or oral contraceptives to help alleviate this symptom.

Normal discharge includes preejaculate and ejaculate. These are released from the tip of the penis during sexual arousal and intercourse.

Although not strictly penile discharge, smegma is another substance that may build up around the head of the penis.

The sections below will cover these types of normal male discharge in more detail.

Preejaculate

Preejaculatory fluid, or precum, is a thick alkaline mucus produced in the bulbourethral glands. The bulbourethral glands, or Cowper's glands, are two pea-sized glands located below the prostate gland.

During sexual stimulation, the bulbourethral glands secrete up to 4 milliliters (ml) of preejaculate into the urethra.

Preejaculatory fluid may:

• function as a lubricant for semen
• lubricate the tip of the penis during intercourse
• neutralize acidity left by urine residue in the urethra
• neutralize vaginal acidity

Whereas the bulbourethral glands release preejaculatory fluid, it is the testes that release sperm. Nonetheless, a 2011 study found that some preejaculate contains live sperm. Preejaculatory samples from the participants contained up to 23 million sperm.

Researchers are not sure whether preejaculate is contaminated immediately before ejaculation or contaminated with sperm leftover from a previous ejaculation.

Ejaculate

Ejaculate, or semen, is a milky, cloudy fluid that travels through the urethra and out of the penis following sexual stimulation. This process is called ejaculation, and it usually happens during orgasm.

Healthy sperm concentrations in semen are around 15–150 million sperm per ml of semen.

Sperm are produced in the testes. They then mature inside ducts located behind the testes. These ducts are called the epididymis and the vas deferens.

During sexual stimulation, the sperm mix with seminal fluid to form semen. Seminal fluid is a whitish liquid produced by the prostate glands and glands called the seminal vesicles.

Sperm make up a small part of semen. Semen is composed of the following:

• 1–5% sperm
• around 5% secretions from the bulbourethral glands
• 15–30% secretions from the prostate
• fluid from the seminal vesicle

Smegma

Smegma is a thick, white substance made up of skin cells, skin oils, and moisture. It is secreted by the sebaceous glands in the skin around the genitals. In males, smegma tends to build up between the head of the penis and the foreskin.

Smegma is a natural lubricant that helps keep the genitals moist and enables the foreskin to retract during sexual intercourse.

However, smegma buildup may produce a foul odor and can act as a breeding ground for bacteria. Washing the penis once per day with clean, warm water will help reduce smegma buildup.

That said, males should avoid washing the penis too frequently with soap or shower gel, as these products can cause irritation and soreness.

The presence of male discharge at times other than sexual stimulation may signal an underlying health concern. We describe some of these in the sections below.

Balanitis

Balanitis refers to inflammation of the skin around the head of the penis. When the inflammation also affects the foreskin, it is known as balanoposthitis.

Some symptoms of balanitis include:

• thick, lumpy discharge that is either white or yellow
• an unpleasant smell
• a red, inflamed rash or swelling
• irritation, soreness, itching, or burning
• pain when urinating

Many factors can cause balanitis, including:

• Poor hygiene: The area underneath the foreskin requires regular cleaning. Dead skin cells, urine residue, and sweat provide the ideal environment for irritation-causing bacteria to breed.
• Allergies: Urine, soaps, condoms, and lubricants can irritate the skin on the penis.
• Skin conditions: Eczema, psoriasis, or lichen sclerosus may cause redness and inflammation.
• Infection: Bacterial or fungal infections can make the head of the penis sore, tender, and itchy.
• Sexually transmitted infections (STIs): STIs such as herpes simplex virus (HSV) can cause blistering and inflammation in the area around the genitals.

Both circumcised and uncircumcised males can develop balanitis. However, one 2017 study found that balanitis is 68% less prevalent among circumcised males than uncircumcised males.

Trichomoniasis

Trichomoniasis is a common infection that affects around 3.7 million people in the United States. The parasite Trichomonas vaginalis causes trichomoniasis.

Around 70% of people with trichomoniasis do not experience any symptoms. If symptoms do occur in males, they may include:

Urethritis

Urethritis is characterized by inflammation of the urethra, and it can be infectious or noninfectious.

Urethritis often develops as a result of an STI. If it develops due to gonorrhea, it is called gonococcal urethritis. If the cause is unknown, it is called nongonococcal urethritis.

Over 40% of people with nongonococcal urethritis do not experience symptoms.

However, some males may experience the following symptoms:

• cloudy or white discharge from the tip of the penis
• irritation and soreness at the urethral opening
• a burning sensation when urinating
• a frequent need to urinate
• testicular pain or swelling

The following pathogens can also cause urethritis:

• Neisseria gonorrhoeae
• Chlamydia trachomatis
• Mycoplasma genitalium
• Trichomonas vaginalis
• HSV
• Epstein-Barr virus
• adenovirus

C. trachomatis is the most common cause of nongonococcal urethritis. It accounts for around 15–40% of cases.

Urethritis can also result from vigorous sex, masturbation, and urinary tract infections (UTIs).

UTIs

UTIs are a common type of bacterial infection. They affect part of the urinary system. The urinary system includes the bladder, kidneys, and urethra.

UTIs occur when bacteria from the skin or rectum enter the urethra and cause infection in the urinary tract.

UTIs tend to be more common in females, who have shorter urethras that are closer to the rectum. This makes it easier for bacteria to enter the urethra and reach the bladder and kidneys.

However, males can also develop UTIs. Males with a UTI may experience symptoms such as:

• cloudy urine that contains pus
• red, pink, or brown urine that contains blood
• pain or a burning sensation when urinating
• a need to urinate more than usual
• strong-smelling urine
• nausea or vomiting

Factors that increase the risk of developing a UTI include:

A person cannot pass a UTI to a sexual partner. However, the person may experience pain and discomfort during sex.

STIs

STIs can spread from person to person as a result of unprotected sexual activity and genital contact.

STIs that may cause abnormal penile discharge include:

Chlamydia

Chlamydia is the most reported STI in the U.S. However, most people with chlamydia are unaware that they have it, as it often does not cause any symptoms.

C. trachomatis is the cause of chlamydia. These bacteria can infect the urethra, rectum, and throat.

In males, chlamydia may cause the following symptoms:

• white, cloudy, or watery penile discharge
• itching or burning at the tip of the penis
• a burning sensation when urinating
• testicular pain

Gonorrhea

Gonorrhea is a common infection in the U.S., particularly among adolescents and young adults.

N. gonorrhoeae is the cause of gonorrhea. These bacteria can infect the urethra and rectum. Sometimes, the infection may also affect the eyes, throat, and joints.

Symptoms of gonorrhea in males include:

• white, yellow, or green penile discharge
• inflammation of the foreskin
• pain or a burning sensation when urinating
• swelling in one testicle

A male should see a doctor if they experience discharge from the penis that is not any of the following:

• urine
• preejaculate
• ejaculate
• smegma

To determine what is causing the penile discharge, a doctor may:

• ask about the person's symptoms
• make a note of their medical and sexual history
• examine the affected area of the penis
• ask for a urine sample to identify signs of a UTI
• swab the affected area and analyze the swab for bacteria and viruses

After identifying the cause of the discharge, the doctor will determine the best course of treatment.

Discharge from the penis that happens during sexual arousal, as a result of sexual intercourse, and after ejaculation is normal.

Abnormal discharge tends to:

• have an unusual color
• have a foul odor
• occur without sexual activity
• be accompanied by pain, burning, or other symptoms

In these instances, the discharge could be a sign of a medical condition that needs evaluation and treatment. It is important to make an appointment with a doctor.

People who wish to protect the health of their eyes should try to include sufficient amounts of the following vitamins in their diet.

1. Vitamin A and beta carotene

Vitamin A is essential for good vision. It is a component of the protein rhodopsin, which allows the eye to see in low-light conditions. According to the American Academy of Ophthalmology, a deficiency in vitamin A can lead to night blindness.

Vitamin A also supports the function of the cornea, which is the protective outer layer of the eye. A person who is deficient in vitamin A may find that their eyes produce too little moisture to stay lubricated.

Beta carotene is the primary source of vitamin A in the human diet. Beta carotene is a type of plant pigment called a carotenoid that exists in many colorful fruits and vegetables. When a person consumes carotenoids, their body converts the pigments into vitamin A.

2. Vitamin E

Alpha tocopherol is a form of vitamin E that has particularly powerful antioxidant properties.

Antioxidants help fight free radicals, which damage tissues throughout the body. Sometimes, free radicals may damage proteins within the eye. This damage can result in the development of cloudy areas called cataracts on the lens of the eye.

A 2014 review looked at studies linking vitamin E to the prevention of cataracts. Some of the research found that lens clarity was better in people who took vitamin E supplements.

However, the authors note that a separate study showed that vitamin E supplements had no effect on the progression of cataracts. They conclude that further research is necessary to determine the effectiveness of vitamin E supplements in preventing and slowing cataract development.

3. Vitamin C

Vitamin C is another powerful antioxidant that helps protect against oxidative damage.

Oxidative damage is a key factor in two of the most common age-related cataracts: cortical and nuclear cataracts. Cortical cataracts develop on the edges of the lens, while nuclear cataracts occur deep in its center or "nucleus."

A 2016 longitudinal study investigated different factors that may help prevent nuclear cataract development. The study involved more than 1,000 pairs of female twins.

At the start of the study, the researchers measured the participants' cataracts. They then tracked each participant's intake of vitamin C and other nutrients over 10 years.

At the end of the study period, the researchers remeasured the cataracts in 324 pairs of twins. The participants who reported consuming more vitamin C showed a 33% reduction in the risk of cataract progression. They also had clearer lenses overall.

4. B vitamins

A 2009 study suggests that daily supplementation with a combination of vitamins B-6, B-9, and B-12 may reduce the risk of AMD. AMD is a degenerative eye disease that affects the vision.

However, this particular study only included women. Further research is, therefore, necessary to support the use of B-vitamins in preventing AMD in both women and men.

An older study looked at nutrient intake and eye health in 2,900 people between the ages of 49 and 97 years. The findings revealed that higher intakes of protein, vitamin A, and the B-vitamins riboflavin, thiamine, and niacin had an association with a lower rate of nuclear cataracts.

A 2018 nationwide study in South Korea found a link between a reduced intake of vitamin B-3, or niacin, and glaucoma. In people with glaucoma, a buildup of fluid within the eye puts pressure on the optic nerve. Over time, this can damage the nerve, resulting in vision loss.

Research suggests that the following nutrients are also beneficial for the eyes.

1. Lutein and zeaxanthin

Lutein and zeaxanthin are carotenoids that exist in high quantities in green leafy vegetables. They are also present in the lens and retina of the eye.

As antioxidants, lutein and zeaxanthin may help reduce oxidative damage in the retina. Some research suggests that taking approximately 6 milligrams (mg) a day of lutein and zeaxanthin may lower a person's risk of developing AMD.

2. Zinc

Zinc is a mineral that helps maintain the health of the retina, cell membranes, and protein structure of the eye.

Zinc allows vitamin A to travel from the liver to the retina to produce melanin. Melanin is a pigment that protects the eyes from ultraviolet (UV) light.

According to the American Optometric Association, zinc supplementation may help people who have AMD or are at risk of developing the condition. Taking 40–80 mg of zinc each day, alongside certain antioxidants, could slow the progression of advanced AMD by 25%. It could also reduce visual acuity loss by 19%.

3. Omega-3 fatty acids

The retina of the eye contains a particularly high concentration of omega-3 fatty acids (omega-3s). These fatty acids help protect the retina from damage and degeneration.

Specifically, omega-3s reduce the buildup of fatty deposits in the blood vessels, including those that supply blood to the retina. Some scientists believe that fatty deposits in these blood vessels could contribute to AMD.

Additionally, a small amount of research suggests that increasing the intake of omega-3s may lower the risk of dry eye syndrome. A person with dry eye syndrome does not produce enough tears to keep the eyes lubricated. However, research in this area is limited, and further studies are necessary to support this claim.

A balanced, healthful diet containing a range of the following foods should provide enough vitamins and nutrients to promote good eye health. Research suggests that these nutrients work together to protect the eye, so eating a wide variety of healthful foods is the best approach.

People who take medications or have an existing health condition should check with their doctor before taking dietary supplements. In some cases, certain supplements may be harmful to health. For example, high dosages of zinc can affect how the body absorbs copper.

Additionally, it seems that very high dosages of beta carotene can increase the risk of lung cancer in people who smoke.

Below, we list the dietary sources of the vitamins that we mention in this article.

Vitamin A and beta carotene:

Vitamin E:

Vitamin C:

Vitamin B-1, or thiamine:

• beans
• lentils
• pork
• fish
• green peas
• yogurt

Vitamin B-2, or riboflavin:

Vitamin B-3, or niacin:

Vitamin B-6, or pyridoxine:

• chickpeas
• dark leafy greens
• poultry
• beef liver
• salmon and tuna

Vitamin B-9, or folic acid:

• dark leafy greens
• peanuts
• beans
• seafood
• sunflower seeds
• eggs

Vitamin B-12, or cobalamin:

People can only get vitamin B-12 from animal sources. As such, people who do not consume animal products will need to take vitamin B-12 supplements or consume products that manufacturers have fortified with vitamin B-12.

Lutein and zeaxanthin:

Zinc:

• seafood, such as oysters, crab, and lobster
• turkey
• beans
• chickpeas
• nuts
• pumpkin seeds
• whole grains
• milk
• fortified cereals

Vegetarians may need to double their intake of zinc-rich foods because a vegetarian diet provides less zinc than an omnivorous diet.

Omega-3 fatty acids:

Specific vitamins and nutrients are essential for maintaining good eye health. Some may even help prevent certain eye diseases from developing or progressing.

A balanced, healthful diet will provide people with the necessary range of nutrients. The diet should include whole grains, legumes, and plenty of colorful fruits and vegetables.